Knowledge Update

​New York, Nov 22 (IANS) Researchers have identified that X chromosome -- one of the sex chromosomes that determines whether an individual is male or female -- plays a major role in the increased incidence of cancer occurrence in males.

"Across virtually every type of cancer, occurrence rates are higher in males than in females. In some cases, the difference might be very small -- just a few percent points -- but in certain cancers, incidence is two or three times higher in males," said Andrew Lane from at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Massachusetts, US. 

Men outpace women in developing many cancers, including those associated with tobacco use, such as kidney, renal, bladder, and oral cancers, Lane said. 

The disparity is present among boys and girls, as well as men and women.

"Data from the National Cancer Institute show that males carry about a 20 per cent higher risk than females of developing cancer. That translates into 150,000 additional new cases of cancer in men every year," Lane added.

In the study, the researchers specifically focussed on tumour suppressor genes -- which protect the cells from cancer. In cancers, these tumour suppressor genes are often mutated or deleted and are no longer functional.

X chromosome were the only genes that were mutated more frequently in male cancers than female cancers.

Males have an X and a Y chromosome, and females have two X. 

In females, one of the X chromosomes shuts down and remains inactive for life to balance out the gene expression. 

The study showed that some genes on the inactivated X chromosome in female cells "escape" that dormant state and function normally. 

Thus females are protected from cancer to some relative extent because they have two copies of these genes whereas males only have one, the researchers said. 

So if they are going to get a cancer that those genes are involved in, they have to mutate them twice, whereas males only have to have one mutation, Lane said.

The study was reported in a paper published online in the journal Nature Genetics. 

​New York, Nov 22 (IANS) In a new breakthrough research, Brazilian scientists have developed a new technology that will enable parents to watch their unborn babies grow in realistic three-dimensional immersive visualisation.

The new technology combines magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) -- which provides high-resolution foetal and placental imaging with excellent contrast -- and ultrasound data to scan segments of the mother's womb and foetus to build a 3-D model which can be brought to life by using a virtual reality (VR) headset.

"The 3-D foetal models combined with virtual reality immersive technologies may improve our understanding of foetal anatomical characteristics and can be used for educational purposes and as a method for parents to visualise their unborn baby," said Heron Werner Jr. from the Clinica de Diagnostico por Imagem, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Sequentially-mounted MRI slices are used to begin construction of the model. A segmentation process follows in which the physician selects the body parts to be reconstructed in 3-D. 

Once an accurate 3-D model is created -- including the womb, umbilical cord, placenta and foetus -- the virtual reality device can be programmed to incorporate the model, the study said.

The virtual reality foetal 3-D models are remarkably similar to the post-natal appearance of the newborn baby. 

They recreate the entire internal structure of the foetus, including a detailed view of the respiratory tract, which can aid doctors in assessing abnormalities, Werner added.

The technology also can help coordinate care with multidisciplinary teams and provide better visual information to parents to help them understand malformations and treatment decisions.

"We believe that these images will help facilitate a multidisciplinary discussion about some pathologies in addition to bringing a new experience for parents when following the development of their unborn child," Werner said.

The study will be presented at the annual meeting of the Radiological Society of North America in Chicago, US.

​New York, Nov 22 (IANS) Teenagers who are obese as well as those who lose excessive weight may both be at risk of irreparable damage to their bones, a new study has found.

Obesity has been previously associated with the risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, but the study found that it can also affect the bone structure in childhood and adolescence.

"While obesity was previously believed to be protective of bone health, recent studies have shown a higher incidence of forearm fractures in obese youth," said lead author Miriam A. Bredella, Associate Professor at Harvard Medical School in Boston, US.

Having a high amount of visceral fat -- the deep fat in the abdomen that surrounds the internal organs -- coupled with a low amount of muscle mass -- anorexia nervosa -- puts adolescents at risk for weakened bone structure, the study said.

"Visceral fat secretes substances that promote chronic inflammation, and chronic inflammation stimulates formation of osteoclasts, which are the cells that resorb or break-down bone. In addition, vitamin D, which is important for bone health, is soluble in adipose tissue and gets trapped within fat cells," Bredella said.

Growth hormone, which is important for bone health, is also lower in adolescents with visceral obesity.

On the other hand, anorexia nervosa also leads to an increased fracture risk in adolescence, which persists to adulthood, even after normalisation of body weight, Bredella said, adding that it is important to address this problem early on. 

Lean mass was positively associated with trabecular density -- a marker for the risk of osteoporosis --, volume and integrity.

"The best way to prevent bone loss is a healthy diet that contains adequate amounts of calcium and vitamin D, along with sufficient exercise," Bredella said.

The study will be presented at the annual meeting of the Radiological Society of North America in Chicago, US.

​Canberra, Nov 21 (IANS) Australian scientists have taken a step in the "right direction" to creating a vaccine for the deadly HIV virus.

Researchers from South Australia's University of Adelaide and the Queen Elizabeth Hospital have used a common cold virus to introduce their DNA-based vaccine into the immune system of laboratory mice, Xinhua news agency reported.

Branka Grubor-Bauk from the University of Adelaide said the team targeted the vaccine into areas in which the HIV infection is most commonly found, and discovered that the testing achieved a "significant reduction" of infection rates in the mice.

"You need to get protection where your body encounters the virus first and you need to stop that virus from either entering, or you need to stop it from replicating and stop it from spreading," Grubor-Bauk said on Monday.

"We're hoping our discovery is definitely pointing us in the right direction."

She said now the team had made the important breakthrough, and it was vital that research continues into a human vaccine for the HIV infection.

"After a long four years of study, we were able to create this common cold virus that encoded proteins of HIV and we vaccinated mice and we were successful in creating immunity in mucosal surfaces," Grubor-Bauk said.

"We also have a DNA vaccine we administered intradermally, like the influenza vaccine, and we found by administering this vaccine we were able to get a systemic immunity throughout the whole body."

The results of the testing were published in the Scientific Reports journal. 

​New York, Nov 20 (IANS) Extracts and isolated compounds from avocado seeds can potentially be used as a natural additive incorporated into ready-to-eat foods to control microbes that cause bacterial illness, researchers say.

The researchers found that the extracts from avocado seeds could be effective in controlling microbes that cause Listeria, a foodborne bacterial illness that can be very serious for pregnant women and people with impaired immune systems.

In the study, the researchers from Tecnologico de Monterrey, in Mexico compared enriched acetogenin extract (EAE) from avocado seeds with two name-brand synthetic antimicrobials.

They found that the EAE presented similar listeria-properties and chemical profiles to the synthetic antimicrobials.

The EAE was effective at 37 degrees celsius and at a refrigeration temperature of four degrees celsius.

Avocado seeds are a waste product of the food industry, and these results offer a value-added, sustainable opportunity for manufacturers, the researchers said.

Food products are usually formulated with synthetic additives that enhances the flavour so that it gives food a particular taste or smell. It may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially.

However, food still has to be safe for consumers to eat, so food scientists are looking for ways to replace synthetic additives.

Since some additives are needed for food safety reasons, food product developers are faced with the challenge of developing more "natural" additives that can produce comparable results, the study said.

The study was published in the Journal of Food Science.

​New York, Nov 20 (IANS) Scientists from the Netherlands said they have made an important advance towards creating a functional bioartificial kidney that could one day replace the need for dialysis or transplantation in the millions of patients with kidney failure.

"The strategies and methods of this work could be relevant to the development of other bioartificial organs, such as a bioartificial liver or bioartificial pancreas, and organs on chips -- such as a kidney on chip, a lung on chip, or a liver on chip," said Dimitrios Stamatialis, from the University of Twente in the Netherlands.

A key requirement for bioartificial kidney is the formation of a "living membrane" that consists of a tight kidney cell layer on artificial membrane surfaces and can transport molecules from one side to the other. 

In a paper presented at American Society of Nephrology (ASN) Kidney Week 2016 at McCormick Place in Chicago, Illinois, the researchers achieved this using conditionally immortalised human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (ciPTECs) on polyethersulfone-based hollow fiber membranes. 

They demonstrated that the cell monolayer is indeed functional as a living membrane.

"This study shows the successful development of a living membrane consisting of a reproducible ciPTEC monolayer on hollow fiber membranes, an important step towards the development of a bioartificial kidney device," Stamatialis said.

​New York, Nov 20 (IANS) In a breakthrough research, US scientists have identified that early signs of Alzheimer's disease can be detected by looking at the back of patients' eyes.

The researchers found that the retina tissue shows evidence of toxic tau and inflammation -- crucial for the onset of the neurodegenerative disease.

"Using the retina for detecting Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases would be non-invasive, inexpensive and could become a part of a normal screening done at patient checkups," said lead author Ashley Nilson, graduate student at The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.

The study demonstrated that the toxic tau, which spreads between connected brain regions, may initiate inflammation in brain regions.

In Alzheimer's, the tau protein changes into a toxic form called tau oligomers and begins clumping into neurofibrillary tangles, which can leading to the eventual death of the brain cells.

"Our findings suggest that the degeneration of nerve cells due to chronic inflammation induced by the tau oligomers may be combated through the combination of anti-tau oligomer and anti-inflammatory therapeutics for the treatment of Alzheimer's and related diseases," added Rakez Kayed, Associate Professor at The University of Texas Medical Branch.

This situation can create a cycle of toxic tau, inflammation and cell death throughout the brain over time.

For the study, the team performed a systematic analyses of brain and retina samples from people with Alzheimer's and a mouse model of Alzheimer's.

"Early detection of Alzheimer's warning signs would allow for early intervention and prevention of neurodegeneration before major brain cell loss and cognitive decline occurs," Nilson said.

Beyond determining eye health and corrective lens prescriptions, having an eye exam can alert health care professionals of several different health conditions including diabetic complications, high cholesterol and high blood pressure, the researchers suggested, in the paper in the Journal of Alzheimer's Disease.

New York, Nov 19 (IANS) Increased sensitivity to uncertain threat, or fear of the unknown, is common to many anxiety disorders, including panic disorder, social anxiety disorder and specific phobias, says a study.

The finding could help steer treatment of these disorders away from diagnosis-based therapies to treating their common characteristics.

"Knowing that sensitivity to uncertain threat underlies all of the fear-based anxiety disorders also suggests that drugs that help specifically target this sensitivity could be used or developed to treat these disorders," said senior author on the study K. Luan Phan, Professor at the University of Illinois in Chicago.

"A treatment, or set of treatments, focused on sensitivity to uncertain threat could result in a more impactful and efficient way of treating a variety of anxiety disorders and symptoms," Stephanie Gorka from the University of Illinois College of Medicine, added. 

Uncertain threat is unpredictable in its timing, intensity, frequency or duration and elicits a generalised feeling of apprehension and hypervigilance.

When a person is sensitive to uncertain threat, they can spend the entire day anxious and concerned that something bad could happen to them, Gorka said.

Panic disorder is one example -- patients are constantly anxious over the fact that they could have a panic attack at any moment, she said.

Predictable threat, on the other hand, produces a discreet fight-or-flight response that has a clear trigger and it abates once the threat has resolved.

For the study, the researchers looked at data from participants who underwent a task in two different studies performed at the University of Illinois at Chicago. 

The two studies, of participants aged 18 to 65, included 25 participants with major depressive disorder; 29 with generalised anxiety disorder; 41 with social anxiety disorder; and 24 with a specific phobia. 

Forty one control participants had no current or prior diagnoses of psychopathology.

The researchers measured the participants' eye-blink responses to predictable and unpredictable mild electric shocks to the wrist. To elicit blinking during the shock-task, the participants heard short, acoustic tones via headphones.

The study, published in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology, found that participants with social anxiety disorder or a specific phobia blinked much more strongly during the unpredictable shocks, when compared to participants without a mental health diagnosis.

​London, Nov 18 (IANS) Although well associated with lowering cardiovascular disease risk high-density lipoprotein (HDL) -- known as good cholesterol -- may not always be able to protect against heart disease.

A new study has suggested that it increases the inflammatory response of certain immune cells called macrophages.

This can potentially counteract its well-established anti-inflammatory effect in various other cell types, the study said.

"Good cholesterol's functions are not as simple as initially thought, and appear to critically depend on the target tissue and cell type," said Marjo Donners of Maastricht University, the Netherlands.

"In the end, it is the balance between its pro- and anti-inflammatory effects that determines clinical outcome," Donners added.

In the study, the researchers found that HDL treatment enhanced inflammation in macrophages, in contrast to its effects in other cell types. Similarly, macrophages taken from mice with elevated HDL levels showed clear signs of inflammation.

This pro-inflammatory effect induced by HDL showed enhanced pathogen protection, the researchers said.

Lung macrophages ingested disease-causing bacteria upon exposure to HDL. On the other hand, mice with low HDL levels were impaired at clearing these bacteria from the lungs. 

The results demonstrate that HDL's pro-inflammatory activity supports the proper functioning of macrophage immune responses.

According to Donners, these findings suggest that patients with persistent infections or specific immune disorders might benefit from HDL-raising therapies.

The research could also lead to the development of cell-specific therapies that exploit the benefits of HDL-targeted therapies while avoiding the side effects, the researchers noted.

The study was published in the journal Cell Metabolism.

​New Delhi, Nov 18 (IANS) Leveraging India's growing importance as a resource hub, the University of New South Wales (UNSW) has launched a unique 'Diya' (light initiative to catalyse higher education in this country and to forge sustainable partnerships with Indian institutions in the field.

The initiative is symbolic of the illumination that higher education can bring in the lives of people, UNSW President and Vice Chancellor Professor Ian Jacobs said during a lecture on 'Education, Technology and Transformational Change', adding that through it, the university aims to provide degree education at and through UNSW for as many as 1 lakh Indian students across the next decade.

"We plan to facilitate this with investment in educational technology, including online teaching and learning, through mutually beneficial partnerships across India's higher education system and with India's national and state governments," Jacobs explained.

He added that the UNSW Diya initiative will demonstrate the varsity's commitment to building much-needed capacity in India's higher education system, to expanding the skills needed to drive India's development agenda and to power its economy. It will also in a large way contribute to the government's ambitious plans including Make in India, Startup India and Digital India.

Jacobs also announced the launch of UNSW's scholarship programmes for Indian students which aim at helping them achieve their potential, and enhance the experience of individuals who might otherwise struggle financially to maintain a place at university. He pointed out that in addition to UNSW Diya, these new India Scholarships too will bring the transformative power of a UNSW education to outstanding Indian students at the undergraduate, postgraduate and research levels.

UNSW is also actively partnering with the Indian government on a series of initiatives that Prime Minister Narendra Modi has unveiled in the recent past. One of them is SWAYAM - an Information Technology platform which will host a Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and provide high quality education on various subjects from school level -- class 9-12 to undergraduate and postgraduate students -- covering all disciplines.

"Increasingly, the future will depend on non-traditional forms of education, especially on digital delivery, which offers incredible opportunities for providing educational opportunities to millions who would otherwise have no access to the best teachers and resources. Online learning will prove transformational in making India competitive with the world," he said.

Meanwhile, UNSW is also actively partnering with the Indian government on its Smart Cities agenda by working on a major symposium for next year. 

"We will be bringing our expertise on Low Carbon Living, Built Environment, Materials Science and Computer Science and Engineering. Discussions are currently underway between the Ministry of Electronics and IT and the Australian Centre for Cyber Security at UNSW on a series of programmes related to creating greater awareness on cyber security," Jacobs stated.

He also touched upon the point of how given the current global political scenario, Australia could well be a good option as an academic destination for Indian students. 

"While it's perhaps too early to assess the impacts of the Brexit vote in the UK or the Trump vote in America, I believe that the relative stability of Australia in an uncertain world makes it a highly attractive option for Indian students seeking an international education. Many young Indian students will in future see Australia as at least as an attractive option as the USA and UK."

To bolster its partnership with India, the university had in July appointed former Indian Consul General, career diplomat and educator Amit Dasgupta as its inaugural India Country Director. The appointment is aimed at helping UNSW work across the highest levels of government and industry to ensure India becomes one of its flagship partnerships.

Jacobs was on a three-city tour to India which included visits to Hyderabad, Delhi and Mumbai. He and his team held a series of meetings and talks with government officials and corporate heads during the visit to enhance relations between the two countries. Strengthening education, research and knowledge exchange in India has been on top of the agenda during the Vice Chancellor's entire stay in India.