Knowledge Update

New York, July 19 (IANS) Inspired by Vitamin B12, researchers from Harvard University have identified a new class of high-performing organic molecules that can safely store electricity from energy sources like solar and wind power in large batteries.

In their previous work, the team developed a high-capacity flow battery that stored energy in organic molecules called quinones and a food additive called ferrocyanide.

Flow batteries store energy in solutions in external tanks -- the bigger the tanks, the more energy they store.

That advance was a game-changer, delivering the first high-performance, non-flammable, non-toxic, non-corrosive and low-cost chemicals that could enable large-scale, inexpensive electricity storage.

While the versatile quinones show great promise for flow batteries, Harvard researchers continued to explore other organic molecules in pursuit of even better performance.

“Now, after considering about a million different quinones, we have developed a new class of battery electrolyte material that expands the possibilities of what we can do," informed Kaixiang Lin, PhD student at Harvard and first author of the paper.

“Its simple synthesis means it should be manufacturable on a large scale at a very low cost, which is an important goal of this project,” he added in a paper published in the journal Nature Energy.

In this research, the team found inspiration in vitamin B2 which helps store energy from food in the body.

The key difference between B2 and quinones is that nitrogen atoms, instead of oxygen atoms, are involved in picking up and giving off electrons.

"With only a couple of tweaks to the original B2 molecule, this new group of molecules becomes a good candidate for alkaline flow batteries," said Michael J. Aziz from Harvard's John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS).

"They have high stability and solubility and provide high battery voltage and storage capacity. Because vitamins are remarkably easy to make, this molecule could be manufactured on a large scale at a very low cost,' Aziz noted.

The team will continue to explore quinones, as well as this new universe of molecules, in pursuit of a high-performing, long-lasting and inexpensive flow battery.​

Sydney, July 19 (IANS) Using seismic data and sophisticated computer simulations, a team of international scientists has revealed the underlying mechanics when a pair of continents part ways -- a phenomenon that is still not completely understood.

The team used computer simulations to uncover a distinct two-phase separation process. 

At first, continents gradually inch apart as a hot, jagged rift is etched into the landscape. 

Then, after millions of years of strained, relentless pulling of the Earth's crust, the continents lurch away from each other, beginning their steady march towards separate sides of the globe as a new ocean forms between them.

According to the study, published in the journal Nature, this work highlights a phenomenon that is otherwise difficult to explain within the conventional framework of plate tectonics.

"Plates tend to shift around quite slowly because they're sitting on an otherwise very viscous mantle," said study co-author Dietmar Muller from the University of Sydney.

"However, throughout Earth's history, there have been plenty of instances where plates have suddenly sped up during supercontinent breakup. This has puzzled us for decades, as this behaviour can't easily be reconciled with our understanding of what drives plate motion," he added.

The study involved analysis of thousands of kilometres of seismic profiles to pinpoint areas where the continents had been vigorously stretched during their detachment. The researchers then designed computer simulations that independently verified this two-phase breakup.

The split did not tend to end amicably. 

"The breakup process leads to margin segmentation, where rapid subsidence, high heat flow and enhanced volcanism characterise the outer margin," said study lead author Sascha Brune from the University of Potsdam, Germany.

It results in a full-margin rupture that sends the outer rims of the continents plunging into the sea.

"The Earth's submerged continental shelves play an indelible role in biogeochemical cycles such as carbon burial and nutrient cycling," Brune said.​

​London, July 19 (IANS) The more variable a brain is and the more its different parts frequently connect with each other, the higher a person's intelligence quotient (IQ) and creativity are, researchers have revealed for the first time.

In a bid to unlock the secrets of the human brain, a team of researchers led by the University of Warwick quantified the brain's dynamic functions, identifying how different parts of the brain interact with each other at different times to discover how the intellect works.

More accurate understanding of human intelligence could lead to future developments in artificial intelligence (AI).

“Advanced brain imaging techniques in our study has helped us gain insights and inform developments in artificial intelligence as well as help establish the basis for understanding and diagnosis of debilitating human mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression,” explained Professor Jianfeng Feng from the department of computer science studies at Warwick.

Using resting-state MRI analysis on thousands of people's brains around the world, the researchers found that the areas of the brain which are associated with learning and development show high levels of variability, meaning that they change their neural connections with other parts of the brain more frequently, over a matter of minutes or seconds.

On the other hand, regions of the brain which aren't associated with intelligence -- the visual, auditory and sensory-motor areas -- show small variability and adaptability.

Currently, AI systems do not process the variability and adaptability that is vital, as evidenced by Professor Jianfeng's research, to the human brain for growth and learning.

This discovery of dynamic functions inside the brain could be applied to the construction of advanced artificial neural networks for computers, with the ability to learn, grow and adapt.

This study may also have implications for a deeper understanding of another largely misunderstood field: mental health.

Altered patterns of variability were observed in the brain's default network with schizophrenia, autism and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) patients.

Knowing the root cause of mental health defects brings scientists exponentially closer to treating and preventing them in the future. The paper is forthcoming in the journal Brain.​

New York, July 16 (IANS) When cows are happy, they produce more nutritious milk with higher levels of calcium, new research suggests.

The researchers found that daily infusions with a naturally-occurring chemical commonly associated with feelings of happiness increased calcium levels in the milk of Jersey cows that had just given birth. 

The results, published in the Journal of Endocrinology, could lead to a better understanding of how to improve the health of dairy cows, and keep the milk flowing.

Demand is high for milk rich in calcium and dairy products such as milk, cheese and yoghurt are primary sources of the mineral. 

But this demand can take its toll on milk-producing cows as evident from the fact that a large number of dairy cow population suffers from hypocalcaemia -- in which calcium levels are low.

A team of researchers led by Laura Hernandez from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the US investigated the potential for serotonin (a naturally occurring chemical commonly associated with feelings of happiness) to increase calcium levels in both the milk and blood of dairy cows. 

The team infused a chemical that converts to serotonin into 24 dairy cows, in the run up to giving birth. 

Half the cows were Jersey and half were Holstein -- two of the most common breeds. Calcium levels in both the milk and circulating blood were measured throughout the experiment.

While serotonin improved the overall calcium status in both breeds, this was brought about in opposite ways. 

Treated Holstein cows had higher levels of calcium in their blood, but lower calcium in their milk (compared to controls). 

The reverse was true in treated Jersey cows and the higher milk calcium levels were particularly obvious in Jerseys at Day 30 of lactation -- suggesting a role for serotonin in maintaining levels throughout lactation.

"By studying two breeds we were able to see that regulation of calcium levels is different between the two," Hernandez said. 

"Serotonin raised blood calcium in the Holsteins, and milk calcium in the Jerseys. We should also note that serotonin treatment had no effect on milk yield, feed intake or on levels of hormones required for lactation," she noted.​

​London, July 16 (IANS) Repeated stimulation of muscles can restore movement after a paralytic attack, finds a study that could pave a new opportunity to rehabilitate patients with spinal cord damage.

In the study, two patients with spinal cord injuries caused by trauma received a form of treatment that combined transcranial magnetic stimulation with simultaneous peripheral nerve stimulation repeatedly for nearly six months.

One patient was paraplegic -- paralysed from the knees down, and the other was tetraplegic -- partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso --, with some voluntary movement of the hands but no capacity to grasp.

After approximately six months of the stimulation treatment, the paraplegic patient could bend both ankles, and the tetraplegic could grasp an object.

"We observed strengthened neural connections and partial restoration of movement to muscles which the patients were previously entirely unable to use," said Anastasia Shulga, Neurologist, at University of Helsinki in Finland.

The movement restored during the treatment was still present a month after the stimulation treatment had ended.

"This is a case study with two patients only, but we think the results are promising," added Jyrki Makela from Helsinki University Hospital, pointing out that rehabilitation of patients with chronic spinal cord injuries is highly challenging, and new treatment methods are sorely needed.

Long-term stimulation treatment of this type was used for the first time to rehabilitate patients paralysed as a result of a spinal cord injury.

Further study is needed to confirm whether such long-term stimulation can be used in rehabilitation after spinal cord injury or can be used in combination with other therapeutic strategies, the researchers concluded.​

​​​​Toronto, July 16 (IANS) Hypertension is the single major risk factor for stroke, which is a highly preventable medical condition globally, irrespective of age and sex, reveals a study led by an Indian-origin researcher.

Stroke which is caused when poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death, is the leading cause of mortality and disability, particularly in low-income and middle-income countries.

The findings showed that 47.9 per cent of stokes were caused as a result of hypertension whereas physical inactivity caused 35.8 per cent.

"The study confirmed that hypertension is the most important modifiable risk factor in all regions and is therefore the key target in reducing the burden of stroke globally," said Salim Yusuf, Professor at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada.

Poor diet and obesity caused 23.2 per cent and 18.6 per cent of strokes, respectively.

While smoking caused 12.4 per cent, heart diseases was accounted for 9.1 per cent of strokes.

Diabetes resulted in 3.9 per cent and alcohol intake in 5.8 per cent of strokes.

Stress caused 5.8 per cent and lipids 26.8 per cent of strokes.

When combined together, the total for all ten risk factors was 90.7 per cent, which was similar in all regions, age groups and in men and women, the researchers said.

"The wider reach confirms the ten modifiable risk factors associated with 90 per cent of stroke cases in all major regions of the world, young and older and in men and women,” said Martin O'Donnell, Associate Professor at McMaster University.

Further, hypertension was found as the highest reason behind strokes in Southeast Asia (59.6 per cent), whereas in western Europe, North America and Australia it caused 38.8 per cent of strokes.

Alcohol intake was found lowest in western Europe, North America, Australia but at 10.4 per cent and 10.7 per cent it was highest in Africa and south Asia, respectively. Physical inactivity was found as the highest reason of strokes in China.

In addition, ischaemic stroke -- caused by blood clots -- accounted for 85 per cent of strokes and haemorrhagic stroke -- bleeding in the brain -- accounted for 15 per cent of strokes, was found as the two major types of strokes.

"The study included better health education, more affordable healthy food, avoidance of tobacco and more affordable medication for hypertension and dyslipidaemia -- abnormal amount of lipids in the blood -- as global population-level interventions to reduce stroke," Yusuf added. 

Governments, health organisations, and individuals should proactively reduce the global burden of stroke, said the paper published in The Lancet.

For the study, the team included 6000 participants from 22 countries and later an additional 20000 individuals from 32 countries in Europe, Asia, America, Africa and Australia.​

​​Washington, July 16 (IANS) The US space agency is ready to proceed with the final design and construction of its next Mars rover, currently targeted to launch in the summer of 2020 and arrive on the Red Planet in February 2021, NASA said.

The Mars 2020 rover will investigate a region of Mars where the ancient environment may have been favourable for microbial life, probing the Martian rocks for evidence of past life.

"This mission marks a significant milestone in NASA’s Journey to Mars - to determine whether life has ever existed on Mars, and to advance our goal of sending humans to the Red Planet,” said Geoffrey Yoder, Acting Associate Administrator of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. 

Throughout its investigation, it will collect samples of soil and rock and cache them on the surface for potential return to Earth by a future mission.

"The Mars 2020 rover is the first step in a potential multi-mission campaign to return carefully selected and sealed samples of Martian rocks and soil to Earth,” Yoder noted.

To reduce risk and provide cost savings, the 2020 rover will look much like its six-wheeled, one-tonne predecessor, Curiosity, which landed on Mars in 2012, but with an array of new science instruments and enhancements to explore Mars as never before, NASA said in a statement.

The Mars 2020 rover will use the same sky crane landing system as Curiosity, but will have the ability to land in a more challenging terrain with two enhancements, making more rugged sites eligible as safe landing candidates, the US space agency pointed out.

The Mars 2020 mission has already passed an extensive review process and a major development milestone.

Once a mission receives preliminary approval, it must go through four rigorous technical and programmatic reviews -- known as Key Decision Points (KDP) to proceed through the phases of development prior to launch. 

Phase A involves concept and requirements definition, Phase B is preliminary design and technology development, Phase C is final design and fabrication, and Phase D is system assembly, testing, and launch. Mars 2020 has just passed its KDP-C milestone.

"Since Mars 2020 is leveraging the design and some spare hardware from Curiosity, a significant amount of the mission's heritage components have already been built during Phases A and B,” George Tahu, Mars 2020 Programme Executive at NASA Headquarters in Washington said. 

"With the KDP to enter Phase C completed, the project is proceeding with final design and construction of the new systems, as well as the rest of the heritage elements for the mission," Tahu added.​

​London, July 16 (IANS) Nearly half of the parents in Britain think heavy social media use is hampering their children's moral development, a British poll revealed on Saturday.

Only 15 per cent of parents thought that popular social media websites such as Facebook provided a positive influence on a young person’s character, said the poll from the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birmingham.

The team of researchers found that 40 per cent of parents were "concerned" or "extremely concerned" about the negative and potentially harmful impact of social media.

"There are some surprising findings in the poll, not the least the low level of agreement that social media can enhance or support a young person's character or moral development," lead researcher Dr Blaire Morgan said in a university statement.

According to the report, 24 percent of the respondents said forgiveness and self-control were the qualities that were least present in them, followed by honesty (21 per cent), fairness (20 per cent) and humility (18 per cent).

"Sixty percent of parents named anger and hostility as the most negative trait displayed, followed by arrogance (51 per cent), ignorance (43 per cent), bad judgment (41 per cent) and hatred (36 per cent)," the report noted.

Meanwhile, the top five character strengths promoted at least once a month on social media sites were identified as humour (52 per cent), appreciation of beauty (51 per cent), creativity (44 per cent), love (39 per cent) and courage (39 per cent).​

​New York, July 16 (IANS) Turtles developed shells as a tool for burrowing underground to escape harsh climatic conditions, a study has found, contradicting the traditional belief that they used their shells for their protection.

The study was conducted on new fossil material, a 15 cm long specimen of the 260- million-year-old, partially shelled, proto turtle or stem turtle, Eunotosaurus Africanus from the Karoo Basin of South Africa, which indicated that the initiation of rib broadening was an adaptive response to fossoriality. 

Numerous fossorial animal -- one that is adapted to digging and life underground such as the badger -- correlates are expressed throughout Eunotosaurus' skeleton.

These stem turtles indicate that the shell did not evolve for protection, rather adaptation related to digging was the initial impetus in the origin of the shell.

"The earliest beginnings of the turtle shell was not for protection but rather for digging underground to escape the harsh South African environment where these early proto turtles lived," said lead author Tyler Lyson, Paleontologist Denver Museum of Nature & Science in Colorado, US.

The adaptations related to fossoriality likely facilitated movement of stem turtles into aquatic environments early in the groups' evolutionary history, and this ecology may have played an important role in stem turtles surviving the Permian/Triassic extinction event that occurred about 252-million-years ago, said the paper published in the journal Current Biology.

Further, the developmental and fossil data showed that one of the first steps toward the shelled body plan was broadening of the ribs.

The distinctly broadened ribs -- that play a crucial role in ventilating the lungs and are used to support the body during locomotion -- has a serious impact on both breathing and speed in these quadrupedal animals. 

These broadened ribs stiffen the torso, which shortens an animals stride length and slows it down, interfering with breathing.

"We knew from both the fossil record and observations how the turtle shell develops into modern turtles that one of the first major changes toward a shell was the broadening of the ribs," Lyson added.

The broad ribs of Eunotosaurus provide an intrinsically stable base on which to operate a powerful forelimb digging mechanism.

Most of these features are widely distributed along the turtle stem and into the crown clade, indicating the common ancestor of Eunotosaurus and modern turtles possessed a body plan significantly influenced by digging, the researchers concluded.​

​Toronto, July 15 (IANS) After analysing Kepler space telescope data, astronomers from the University of Toronto, Canada, have found a clear understanding yet of a class of exoplanets called 'Warm Jupiters', showing that many have unexpected planetary companions.

The analysis provides strong evidence of the existence of two distinct types of 'Warm Jupiters', each with their own formation and dynamical history.

The two types include those that have companions and thus, likely formed where we find them today and those with no companions that likely migrated to their current positions.

“Our findings suggest that a big fraction of 'Warm Jupiters' cannot have migrated to their current positions dynamically and that it would be a good idea to consider more seriously that they formed where we find them,” said Chelsea Huang, a Dunlap Fellow at the Dunlap Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Toronto.

Warm Jupiters are large, gas-giant exoplanets -- planets found around stars other than the Sun.

They are comparable in size to the gas-giants in our solar system.

But unlike the Sun's family of giant planets, “Warm Jupiters” orbit their parent stars at roughly the same distance that Mercury, Venus and the Earth circle the Sun.

They take 10 to 200 days to complete a single orbit.

Because of their proximity to their parent stars, they are warmer than our system's cold gas giants -- though not as hot as “Hot Jupiters” which are typically closer to their parent stars than Mercury.

Instead of finding "lonely", companion-less “Warm Jupiters”, the team found that 11 of the 27 targets they studied have companions ranging in size from Earth-like to Neptune-like.

“The number of 'Warm Jupiters' with smaller neighbours may be even higher. We may find that more than half have companions,” Huang noted in a paper published in the Astrophysical Journal.​