Knowledge Update

Succession planning is an important activity for continuing businesses without which organizations starts fading out due to absence of leaders who can lead the organization after the successfull leader. In this article a five step process of succession planning is discussed and provides guidelines for organizations to think in the direction of succession planning. The five steps begin with identify critical positions that can shape the organization, identify competencies of incumbent leaders, identify strategies of succession planning, document and implement succesion plan, evaluate the effectiveness of the process and the leader. This process can be equally applicable in small, medium and large organizations with appropriate modification to the context. 

New York, Sep 21 (IANS) Loneliness is linked to poor physical and mental health, and a new study of more than 10,000 people has found that the risk for feeling lonely is at least partially due to genetics.

Genetic risk for loneliness is also associated with neuroticism -- long-term negative emotional state -- and depressive symptoms, said the study published in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology.

"For two people with the same number of close friends and family, one might see their social structure as adequate while the other doesn't," said lead researcher Abraham Palmer, Professor of Psychiatry at University of California - San Diego School of Medicine in the US.

"And that's what we mean by 'genetic predisposition to loneliness' -- we want to know why, genetically speaking, one person is more likely than another to feel lonely, even in the same situation," Palmer noted.

In their latest research, Palmer and his team examined genetic and health information from 10,760 people aged 50 years and older that was collected by the Health and Retirement Study, a longitudinal study of health, retirement and aging sponsored by the National Institute on Aging at the US National Institutes of Health. 

The researchers found that loneliness, the tendency to feel lonely over a lifetime, rather than just occasionally due to circumstance, is a modestly heritable trait -- 14 to 27 per cent.

The researchers also determined that loneliness tends to be co-inherited with neuroticism and a scale of depressive symptoms. 

The study, however, suggests that although feeling lonely is partially due to genetics, environment plays a bigger role.

The team is now working to find a genetic predictor -- a specific genetic variation that would allow researchers to gain additional insights into the molecular mechanisms that influence loneliness.

​London, Sep 17 (IANS) Alterations in alignment of teeth, which is a common dental problem, can lead to poorer control of posture as well as static balance, Spanish researchers have confirmed.

Misaligned teeth, or occlusion, may include teeth that do not touch perfectly such as a shifted midline, gaps between teeth, crowding, crossbites and missing teeth.

Dental occlusion is the contact made between the top and bottom teeth when closing the mouth. Teeth may be perfectly aligned or they may present alterations with varying levels of severity.

Dental occlusion's association with postural control may seem statistically weak, but grows stronger when a person experiences fatigue or when instability is a factor, the study said.

"Postural control is the result of a complex system that includes different sensory and motor elements arising from visual, somatosensory -- denoting a sensation such as pressure, pain, or warmth -- and vestibular information -- regarding motion, equilibrium, and spatial orientation," agenciasinc.es quoted Sonia Julia-Sanchez, researcher at the University of Barcelona in Spain, as saying.

Further, malocclusion -- imperfect positioning of the teeth when the jaws are closed -- has also been associated with different motor and physiological alterations, especially when people were fatigued than when they were rested.

But postural control was shown to improve -- both in static and dynamic equilibrium -- when different malocclusions are corrected by positioning the jaw in a neutral position.

"When the subjects were tired their balance was worse under both stable and unstable conditions. Under static conditions, the factor that had the greatest impact on imbalance was fatigue, Julia-Sanchez added. 

In contrast, a significant relationship between exhaustion and dental occlusion was observed under conditions of maximum instability, Julia-Sanchez said.

However, this relationship can play a crucial role in athletes in how well they ultimately perform as well as in the prevention of injuries such as sprains, strains and fractures caused by unexpected instability as fatigue increases and motor control capacity decreases.

"Therefore, it would be helpful for both the general population and athletes to consider correcting dental occlusions to improve postural control and thus prevent possible falls and instability due to a lack of motor system response," Julia-Sanchez concluded, in the paper published in the journal Motor Control and Neuroscience Letters.

​London, Sep 21 (IANS) Children who spend just 15 minutes or more a day watching their favourite cartoons on television may be at an increased risk of losing their creative minds as compared to those who read books or solve jigsaw puzzles, a study says.

"There was clear evidence that children came up with less original ideas immediately after watching television,"said Sarah Rose, Lecturer at Staffordshire University in Britain," although adding "these effects disappeared after a short time."

However, "if children are less creative in their play, this could, over time, negatively impact their development," Rose said.

There is a belief that slow-paced programmes are more educational but our findings do not support this, Sarah said. 

In the study, the team looked at the immediate impact of television on three-year-old's creativity. They compared children who watched -- Postman Pat, with those who read books or played jigsaw puzzles. 

The children were tested for throwing up maximum original creative ideas.

The study is potentially useful to those who produce children's television shows, early year educators, as well as parents.

The findings were presented at the British Psychological Developmental Conference in Belfast, recently.

​London, Sep 21 (IANS) The upper depths of the world's oceans have warmed significantly since 1995, resulting in severe hurricanes, storm surges and an increase in the number of icebergs, according to a new report.

"Many people may associate warmer seas with the pleasant weather conditions they're used to experiencing while on holiday, but the fact of the matter is that an increase in sea temperatures is having a huge impact on the world's weather," said one of the study authors Grant Bigg from University of Sheffield in Britain. 

"Our study has shown that severe hurricanes, storm surges, melting ice in the Arctic region and changes to El Nino are all being caused by sea temperatures rising across the planet. These are all things that can have a devastating impact on the way we live our lives," Bigg noted.

The rise in ocean temperatures has caused an increase in the number of severe hurricanes and typhoons, such as Hurricane Katrina, which devastated New Orleans in 2005, and Typhoon Haiyan, which caused massive destruction in the Philippines in 2013, the study said.

Hurricanes have even been observed in the South Atlantic for the first time since satellite records began in the 1970s. 

The area was traditionally viewed as an unlikely region for hurricane formation because of its cooler sea surface temperatures, however in 2004 conditions were more favourable than normal due to warmer ocean temperatures, spawning Hurricane Catarina off the coast of Brazil.

The report, presented at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Hawaii, also showed that warmer seas have resulted in a significant loss of ice in the Arctic region. 

The atmosphere in the polar regions has warmed at about twice the average rate of global warming with Arctic coasts experiencing a rise in the occurrence of storm surges.

This increase in storm surges can have a detrimental effect on fragile ecosystems in the area, such as low relief tundra, underlain by permafrost, according to the report.

Warmer oceans have also caused a distinct change in El Nino events -- the warmer currents associated with the cycle have now been observed towards the central Pacific rather than the west, according to the Sheffield scientists.

"We hope that this research, together with studies presented by our colleagues in Hawaii this week, will help to shape the response of conservation and sustainable development to ocean warming," Bigg said.

​New York, Sep 21 (IANS) Have you ever wondered how our brain enables us to read a book even in a noisy cafe by filtering out the irrelevant stimuli coming through ears and "gating" in the relevant ones in our vision -- words on a page? It is possible due to the inhibitory neurons that the brain employs in such situations, new research suggests.

The inhibitory neurons are brain's traffic cops that help ensure proper neurological responses to incoming stimuli by suppressing other neurons and working to balance excitatory neurons, which aim to stimulate neuronal activity, said the study.

"Our computational model shows that inhibitory neurons can enable a neural circuit to gate in specific pathways of information while filtering out the rest," said senior author Xiao-Jing Wang, Professor at New York University.

Of particular interest to the team was a specific subtype of inhibitory neurons that targets the excitatory neurons' dendrites -- components of a neuron where inputs from other neurons are located. 

These dendrite-targeting inhibitory neurons are labeled by a biological marker called somatostatin and can be studied selectively by experimentalists. 

The researchers proposed that they not only control the overall inputs to a neuron, but also the inputs from individual pathways -- for example, the visual or auditory pathways converging onto a neuron.

"This was thought to be difficult because the connections from inhibitory neurons to excitatory neurons appeared dense and unstructured," Guangyu Robert Yang, a doctoral candidate in Wang's lab, observed. 

"Thus a surprising finding from our study is that the precision required for pathway-specific gating can be realised by inhibitory neurons," Yang noted.

The study's authors used computational models to show that even with the seemingly random connections, these dendrite-targeting neurons can gate individual pathways by aligning with excitatory inputs. 

In the study published in the journal Nature Communications, they showed that this alignment can be realised through synaptic plasticity -- a brain mechanism for learning through experience.

​New York, Sep 21 (IANS) Rocks formed by the grinding together of other rocks during earthquakes are rich in trapped hydrogen and similar seismic activity on Mars may produce enough hydrogen to support life, a study says.

"Mars is not very seismically active, but our work shows that 'Marsquakes' could produce enough hydrogen to support small populations of microorganisms, at least for short periods of time," said first author of the study Sean McMahon from Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, US.

"NASA has plans to measure seismic activity on Mars during its 2018 InSight mission, and our data will make those measurements all the more interesting," study co-author John Parnell from University of Aberdeen in Scotland said.

The researchers studied rock formations around active fault lines in the Outer Hebrides, off the coast of Scotland. 

"Previous work has suggested that hydrogen is produced during earthquakes when rocks fracture and grind together. Our measurements suggest that enough hydrogen is produced to support the growth of microorganisms around active faults," McMahon said.

While humans and other animals get their energy mainly from the reaction between oxygen and sugar, bacteria use a wide array of alternative reactions to obtain energy. 

The oxidation of hydrogen gas, for example, generates enough energy for bacteria deep in the Earth's subsurface.

"This is just one part of the emerging picture of the habitability of the Martian subsurface, where other sources of energy for life may also be available. The best way to find evidence of life on Mars may be to examine rocks and minerals that formed deep underground around faults and fractures, which were later brought to the surface by erosion," McMahon pointed out.

The study was published in the journal Astrobiology.

​New York, Sep 21 (IANS) A computer-based brain training programme developed at Yale University helps improve student performance in reading and math -- in some cases even more than individualised tutoring, according to a new study.

In a study of more than 500 second graders, math and reading scores on school- administered tests increased significantly more in children who used the brain training programme Activate during the school year than in control classes.

The effect on math achievement scores was greater than what has been reported for one-on-one tutoring, said the study published in the journal Scientific Reports.

"The programme increases focus, self-control, and memory -- cognitive skills essential for learning," said lead author of the study Bruce Wexler, Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, US . 

"And these are the exactly the cognitive skills affected by poverty, so we believe brain training programmes like Activate can help reduce the achievement gaps related to poverty that are seen in schools across the country," Wexler noted.

The findings illustrate that the benefits of the training, conducted three times a week for a four-month period, extend beyond getting better on the training games themselves and lead to improved learning of material that is very different from that in the games.

In a second finding from the same study, researchers discovered that doing a five-minute brain warm-up game just before beginning an Activate math or reading curricular content game can increase math and reading performance.