Knowledge Update

New York, April 24 (IANS) Despite having extremely underdeveloped muscles and wings, young birds may acquire a mature flight stroke early in life by initially relying more on their legs and wings for power, finds a new study.

Adult birds have large wings and robust interlocking forelimb skeletons that may help meet the demands of flight.

But, the juvenile birds have small "protowings" or "mini wings" and flexible joints that lack many of the hallmarks of advanced flight.

Despite these limitations, young birds can flap their wings as they run up slopes and even briefly fly, challenging longstanding ideas about the origin of flight and flight development, the researchers said.

The team used X-ray analysis to visualise skeletal movement as birds like Chukar partridges, Alectoris flapped their wings while trying to climb steep slopes.

The findings showed that when flap-running at similar levels of effort, juvenile and adult birds showed similar patterns of joint movement.

Despite their undeveloped anatomy, young birds appeared to produce all of the elements of the avian flight stroke and modify their wing stroke for different behaviours, much like adults.

The force generated by flapping may push the birds forward as well as upward, improving traction as they climb.

Understanding flapping behaviour in young birds may provide insight into the possible use of mini-wings by extinct theropod dinosaurs, before flight evolved, the researchers suggested in the study published in the journal PLOS ONE.

"Baby birds anatomically look a lot like some of the dinosaur fossils that we see," said Ashley Heers from American Museum of Natural History in US.

"And so, by studying baby birds and looking at how they actually use these dinosaur-like anatomies, we can get a better sense of how these long-extinct animals might have been using their wings," Heers concluded.​

New York, April 24 (IANS) Fructose, a sugar common in the western diet, can damage hundreds of brain genes in a way that could lead to a range of diseases -- from diabetes to cardiovascular disease, and from Alzheimer's to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder -- warns a new study.

However, the researchers discovered good news as well: An omega-3 fatty acid known as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) seems to reverse the harmful changes produced by fructose.

"DHA changes not just one or two genes; it seems to push the entire gene pattern back to normal, which is remarkable," said Xia Yang, assistant professor at the University of California - Los Angeles (UCLA).

DHA enhances learning and memory. It is abundant in wild salmon (but not in farmed salmon) and, to a lesser extent, in other fish and fish oil, as well as walnuts, flaxseed, and fruits and vegetables, co-senior author Fernando Gomez-Pinilla, an UCLA professor, pointed out.

The research was published online in the journal EBioMedicine.

To test the effects of fructose and DHA, the researchers trained rats to escape from a maze, and then randomly divided the animals into three groups.

For the next six weeks, one group of rats drank water with an amount of fructose that would be roughly equivalent to a person drinking a liter of soda per day.

The second group was given fructose water and a diet rich in DHA. The third received water without fructose and no DHA.

After the six weeks, the rats were put through the maze again. The animals that had been given only the fructose navigated the maze about half as fast than the rats that drank only water -- indicating that the fructose diet had impaired their memory.

The rats that had been given fructose and DHA, however, showed very similar results to those that only drank water -- which strongly suggests that the DHA eliminated fructose's harmful effects.

Other tests on the rats revealed more major differences: The rats receiving a high-fructose diet had much higher blood glucose, triglycerides and insulin levels than the other two groups.

Those results are significant because in humans, elevated glucose, triglycerides and insulin are linked to obesity, diabetes and many other diseases.

The research team sequenced more than 20,000 genes in the rats' brains, and identified more than 900 genes that were altered by the fructose.

The altered genes they identified, the vast majority of which are comparable to genes in humans, are among those that interact to regulate metabolism, cell communication and inflammation.

Among the conditions that can be caused by alterations to those genes are Parkinson's disease, depression, bipolar disorder, and other brain diseases, Yang said.​

​New York, April 25 (IANS) A team of international tobacco control experts has found that use of e-cigarettes can reduce overall smoking as well as potentially decrease the mortality rates particularly arising out of cigarette smoking.

The findings showed that e-cigarettes have the potential to counteract health risks and may do more benefit than harm.

Also, the evidence suggests a strong potential for e-cigarettes use to improve population health by reducing or displacing cigarette use in countries where cigarette prevalence is still high and smokers are interested in quitting.

"While e-cigarettes may act as a gateway to smoking, much of the evidence indicates that e-cigarette use encourages cessation from cigarettes by those people who would have otherwise smoked with or without e-cigarettes," said lead researcher David Levy, professor at Georgetown University in the US.

However, the experts' estimated that exclusive e-cigarette use is associated with about five percent of the mortality risks of smoking.

Research shows that cigarette smoking rates have fallen more in the last two years than they have in the previous four or five years in the US, Canada and England, and that this trend has coincided with the increase in e-cigarette use.

"We believe that the discussion to date has been slanted against e-cigarettes, which is unfortunate, because the big picture tells us that these products appear to be used mostly by people who already are or who are likely to become cigarette smokers," Levy added.

In the study, published online in the journal Addiction, seven top international tobacco control experts have prompted regulators at the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to have a broad "open-minded" perspective when it comes to regulating vaporised nicotine products, especially e-cigarettes.

The team synthesised much of the evidence published to date on e-cigarettes to suggest that use of these products can lead to reduced cigarette smoking overall with a potential reduction in deaths from cigarette smoking.

The team also warned that heavy regulation and taxation of e-cigarettes will counteract the benefit that these products can provide.

"We don't want to encourage e-cigarette use by youth and young adults who would not have otherwise smoked. However, the primary aim of tobacco control policy should be to discourage cigarette use while providing the means for smokers to more easily quit smoking, even if that means switching for some time to e-cigarettes rather than quitting all nicotine use," the researchers noted.​

​London, April 24 (IANS) Far from making you smarter, electrical stimulation of the brain's cells while solving challenging tasks can lead to mental overload, warn researchers.

The researchers wanted to test whether a treatment that sends a very weak electrical current through the skull to the outer layers of the brain, so-called transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), can actually make us smarter.

The tasks for the participants were divided into three levels -- simple, medium and difficult.

The researchers found no effect of stimulation when participants performed the simple and medium tasks, yet they found a large negative effect on the most difficult tasks.

"tDCS had a disruptive effect only on the most difficult tasks that demanded a lot of concentration," said one of the lead researchers, James Roe from the University of Oslo in Norway.

"We saw that participants experienced severe problems concentrating when the task was most difficult and the brain was being stimulated," Roe noted.

"It was as though tDCS had completely overloaded a brain region crucial to performing the task, as though it crashed it," Roe explained in a paper published in the journal Neuropsychologia.

In recent times neuroscientists have been showing increased interest for tDCS. Many claim that the device can, among other things, help improve memory, increase self-control and make us more creative.

tDCS is already implemented in the rehabilitation of a range of psychiatric and neurological conditions, such as depression, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, fibromyalgia and tinnitus.

While the researchers acknowledged that tDCS can indeed have a positive impact, they said the study shed light on the effects of tDCS when we solve tasks of varying difficulty.​

​Sydney, April 23 (IANS) If you love apples, so also love the humble banana. Eating a banana daily is likely to boost eye health and prevent vision-related diseases, a study has found.

Researchers have found that bananas have carotenoid -- a compound that turn fruits and vegetables red, orange or yellow and are converted into vitamin A, important precursors for eye health -- in the liver.

According to previous research, foods containing high levels of carotenoids also protect against chronic disease, including certain cancers, cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

The study showed that banana rich in provitamin A carotenoids may offer a potential food source for alleviating vitamin A deficiency -- important for sight.

To combat vitamin A deficiency, researchers have been investigating methods to boost carotenoids in bananas. 

Cara L. Mortimer and other researchers from Queensland University of Technology in Australia studied two banana varieties to find out why they make very different amounts of carotenoids. 

They found that the pale yellow, low-carotenoid cavendish variety produces more of an enzyme that breaks down carotenoids. 

In addition, another variety stashes its carotenoids in microscopic sacs during ripening, shifting the chemical equilibrium in the fruit so it can make even higher levels of these substances. 

The findings, published in ACS' Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, can someday help in the development of banana varieties with enhanced health benefits.

Bananas are ideal food for young children and families for many regions of the world, because of their sweetness, texture, portion size, familiarity, availability, convenience, versatility and cost. ​

​London, April 25 (IANS) Researchers have for the first time visually depicted the movement of dinosaurs around the world during the Mesozoic Era -- from about 252 to 66 million years ago -- including a curious exodus from Europe.

The analysis -- based on "network theory" used to gather internet data -- also reaffirms previous studies that have found that dinosaurs continued to migrate to all parts of the world after Pangaea -- a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras -- split into landmasses that are separated by oceans.

The findings revealed that although continental splitting undoubtedly reduced intercontinental migration of dinosaurs, it did not completely inhibit it.

While "network theory" is commonly used in computer science for quantifying internet data, such as friend connections on Facebook, it has only recently been applied to biology research and this is the first study to use it to on dinosaur research

The analysis also showed that all connections between Europe and other continents during the Early Cretaceous period -- 125-100 million years ago -- were out-going.

While dinosaur families were leaving Europe, no new families were migrating into Europe.

"This is a curious result that has no concrete explanation. It might be a real migratory pattern or it may be an artefact of the incomplete and sporadic nature of the dinosaur fossil record," said lead researcher Alex Dunhill at University of Leeds in Britain.

For the study, published in the Journal of Biogeography, the team used the Paleobiology database that contains every documented and accessible dinosaur fossil from around the world.

Fossil records for the same dinosaur families from different continents were then cross-mapped for different periods of time, revealing connections that show how they have migrated.​

Washington, April 25 (IANS) In one of its most ambitious projects in deep space, a team of NASA researchers are proposing to send robots at the centre of icy moons to explore the subsurface ocean for presence of life.

The two possible candidates are: the icy moons of gas giants Jupiter and Saturn which harbour sub-surface oceans perfect for hosting life.

According to a recent study, Jupiter’s moon Europa is creating a strong gravitational pull which is creating more heat on the moon's ice-sheet that is enough to support a sub-surface ocean.

But it is Saturn's icy moon Enceladus -- 500 km in diameter and 1.272 billion km away from the Earth - that serves as a leading candidate for extra-terrestrial life.

This year, one of most promising proposals that NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts Programme (NIAC) has received is from the researchers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) at Pasadena, California - proposing robots to explore the icy moons.

The Icy-Moon Cryovolcano Explorer (ICE) project aims to land on these moons and send a robotic explorer down the ice volcano to deploy a submersible to explore the ocean.

With a thick icy crust, Europa may be tough for a drilling robot to reach the subsurface ocean so the researchers have now turned their eyes on Enceladus.

The data from NASA's Cassini probe has strongly indicated that the cryovolcanic plumes of Enceladus probably originate in a biomolecule-friendly oceanic environment.

Enceladus, which probably has an ocean underlying its icy surface, has somehow managed to sprout multiple fissures along its south pole.

A surface-to-subsurface robotic system, the ICE will land on the surface of an icy moon, traverse to a cryovolcano, descend into its opening, perform in-situ science in the vent or crevasse and ultimately deploy underwater vehicles to explore a subsurface ocean.

ICE involves three modules: Descent Module (DM), Surface Module (SM) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs_.

DM will carry AUVs and descend into a vent by using a combination of roving, climbing and hopping, like an experienced human alpinist.
SM will stay on the surface, generating power and communicating with the Earth.

DM will rely on the power and communication link provided by SM through a cable to minimise the size and weight.

Once DM reach the subsurface ocean, it will launch the AUVs to explore the exotic environment that potentially harbours life.

ICE brings three unique benefits. First, it enables in-situ science in a cryovolcano vent.

Although orbiters can perform in-situ science of plumes, relatively large dust grains are hard to reach orbital altitude. Yet it is those mineral grains that carry rich information about the habitability of the subsurface ocean.

Second, ICE enables the exploration of subsurface oceans by providing an access to it.

Third, it enables the operation of AUVs in subsurface ocean by providing three essential services: communication, localisation and power.

"A successful completion of the project will mature this exciting concept into a credible element of the growing outer planets and icy moons exploration portfolio,” the US space agency said in a statement.​

​London, April 22 (IANS) After logging a higher growth, India has emerged as the top-ranked nation in the flow of foreign direct investment in 2015, beating China on the very turf it has dominated for a few decades, says the think tank of the Financial Times.

​New York, April 22 (IANS) Ad buying on Facebook has got more easier with the social media website introducing a familiar terminology for broadcast advertisers, making the purchase easy and more TV-like. Target rating point video buys on Facebook or photo-sharing website Instagram can now leverage day-parting and Nielsen Designated Market Area (DMA) targeting -- two features that were previously unavailable -- www.adage.com reported. DMAs are defined by Nielsen Media Research and are used to identify specific media markets for those interested in buying and selling television, advertising and programming. DMA targeting allows marketers to home in on a specific local television market area while day-parting delivers advertisements during specific parts of the day. The move will provide marketers further brand building capabilities on mobile as well as flexibility to extend TV and video campaigns on Facebook with a currency broadcast advertisers are familiar with. "At the same time, the company is telling advertisers to rethink the way they deliver video on Facebook -- particularly on mobile -- as opposed to TV," the report said. Facebook said that broadcast advertisers should consider various factors when implementing TV ads on its mobile News Feed. "The mobile feed has fundamentally changed the way people view and absorb information, and this is especially true with video," Matt Idema, vice president of monetisation product marketing at Facebook was quoted as saying. "For marketers, this shift makes it essential to take new creative considerations into account when designing effective video ads," Idema added. According to data released by Facebook this week, on Facebook's mobile News Feed, for example, users spend on average 1.7 seconds with a piece of content versus 2.5 seconds on desktop.​