Knowledge Update

​San Francisco, Oct 25 (IANS) Online Payment gateway PayPal has joined social media giant Facebook where the service will now be available in Messenger for people in the US to shop via chatbots.

London, Oct 25 (IANS) Do not be surprised if tomorrow your children are taught by robots in their primary school classrooms as Spanish researchers are close to developing robotic tutors that can detect the emotional state of children while interacting with educational software which will ultimately improve their learning experience.

​London, Oct 25 (IANS) Telling self-serving lies may gradually lead people to a bigger one and finally push them down a slippery slope where their brains may start to adapt to the dishonesty, making deceit look much easier, an interesting study has revealed.

The findings showed that telling small lies desensitises our brains to the associated negative emotions and may encourage us to tell bigger lies in future.

Further, amygdala -- a part of the brain associated with emotion -- was found to be most active when people first lied for their personal gain. 

The amygdala's response to lying declined with every lie while the magnitude of the lies escalated. 

Larger drops in amygdala activity predicted bigger lies in future, the researchers said.

"When we lie for personal gain, our amygdala produces a negative feeling that limits the extent to which we are prepared to lie," said Tali Sharot from University College London (UCL).

"However, this response fades as we continue to lie, and the more it falls the bigger our lies become. This may lead to a 'slippery slope' where small acts of dishonesty escalate into more significant lies," Sharot observed.

For the study, the team included 80 volunteers who took part in a team estimation task that involved guessing the number of pennies in a jar and sending their estimates to unseen partners using a computer. 

Participants were told that aiming for the most accurate estimate would benefit them and their partner and over-estimating the amount would benefit the volunteer at their partner's expense. 

The results revealed that people started by slightly exaggerating their estimates which elicited strong amygdala responses. 

Their exaggerations escalated as the experiment went on while their amygdala responses declined.

The researchers only tested dishonesty in this experiment, but the same principle may also apply to escalations in other actions such as risk taking or violent behaviour, they stated, in the study published in the journal Nature Neuroscience.

​London, Oct 25 (IANS) Along with our skin that loses the firmness and elasticity of the youth, our brain too starts to sag as we age, researchers say.

A recent study found that as humans age, their brain folds and the tension on the cerebral cortex -- the outer layer of neural tissue in our brains -- appears to decrease. 

Previous research has shown that this folding of the cortex across mammalian species follows a universal law -- that is, regardless of size and shape, they all fold in the same way.

"Our study has shown that we can use this same law to study changes in the human brain," said lead author Yujiang Wang from the Newcastle University in Britain.

However, this effect was more pronounced in individuals with Alzheimer's disease, the researchers said.

"In Alzheimer's disease, this effect is observed at an earlier age and is more pronounced. The next step will be to see if there is a way to use the changes in folding as an early indicator of disease," Wang added. 

The study also found that male and female brains differ in size, surface area, and the degree of folding. 

Indeed, female brains tend to be slightly less folded than male brains of the same age. Despite this, male and female brains are shown to follow exactly the same law, the researchers said.

The study sheds light on the underlying mechanisms which affect brain folding and could be used in the future to help diagnose brain diseases, the researchers observed.

"More work is needed in this area but it does suggest that the effect Alzheimer's disease has on the folding of the brain is akin to premature ageing of the cortex," Wang noted in the paper that appeared in the journal PNAS.

London, Oct 25 (IANS) Human-made noise can have a detrimental impact on an animal's use of information from scent, thereby putting them at greater risk of being attacked by predators, new research has found.

One obvious way in which human-made noise can cause animals problems is through the masking of valuable acoustic information.

"What our study shows for the first time is that there could also be disruption to the use of olfactory information; human-made noise could affect decision-making based on information gathered using a different sense," said lead author of the study Amy Morris-Drake from the University of Bristol in England.

Using field-based experimental trials on dwarf mongooses in South Africa, the researchers combined sound recordings and fecal samples to demonstrate that road-noise playback negatively affected the mongooses' ability to detect predator feces. 

Even after detection, the additional noise led to less information gathering and less vigilance, making the mongooses more vulnerable to danger, according to the study published in the journal Current Biology.

"We've known for a long time that noise from urbanisation, traffic and airports can detrimentally affect humans by causing stress, sleep deprivation, cardiac problems and slower learning. What's becoming increasingly clear is that a lot of other species -- mammals, birds, fish, insects and amphibians -- are also impacted in all sorts of ways by anthropogenic, or human-made, noise," Andy Radford from the University of Bristol noted.

Closely monitoring the mongooses, the team found that their adaptive responses to predatory cues, such as increased inspection of the cue, vigilance scanning for danger and more time spent near the safety of the burrow, were all disrupted by road traffic noise.

New York, Oct 25 (IANS) A drug, which is already used in high doses in medical detoxification emergencies, may help prevent many age-related health problems when used at much lower levels, suggests new research conducted on rats.

The drug N-acetyl-cysteine, or NAC might help maintain levels of a known antioxidant glutathione and prevent the routine metabolic declines associated with ageing, said the study published in the journal Redox Biology.

"Using NAC as a prophylactic, instead of an intervention, may allow glutathione levels to be maintained for detoxification in older adults," the researchers said.

The detoxification compound glutathione, helps resist the toxic stresses of everyday life -- but its levels decline with age and this sets the stage for a wide range of age-related health problems.

"We've known for some time of the importance of glutathione as a strong antioxidant," said lead author Tory Hagen, Professor at Oregon State University in the US.

"What this study pointed out was the way that cells from younger animals are far more resistant to stress than those from older animals," Hagen noted.

Decline of the detoxification mechanisms are linked to cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer, according to scientists.

"In young animal cells, stress doesn't cause such a rapid loss of glutathione. The cells from older animals, on the other hand, were quickly depleted of glutathione and died twice as fast when subjected to stress," Hagen said.

"But pre-treatment with NAC increased glutathione levels in the older cells and largely helped offset that level of cell death," Hagen pointed out.

New York, Oct 25 (IANS) In a first, Harvard University researchers have made an entirely 3D-printed organ-on-a-chip with integrated sensing that can offer a viable alternative to traditional animal testing.

"We are pushing the boundaries of three-dimensional printing by developing and integrating multiple functional materials within printed devices," said coauthor of the study Jennifer Lewis.

"This study is a powerful demonstration of how our platform can be used to create fully functional, instrumented chips for drug screening and disease modeling," Lewis noted.

Organs-on-chips mimic the structure and function of native tissue and have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional animal testing. 

However, the fabrication and data collection process for organs-on-chips is expensive and laborious. Currently, these devices are built in clean rooms using a complex, multi-step lithographic process and collecting data requires microscopy or high-speed cameras.

"Our approach was to address these two challenges simultaneously via digital manufacturing," Travis Busbee, coauthor of the paper and graduate student in the Lewis Lab, pointed out. 

"By developing new printable inks for multi-material 3D printing, we were able to automate the fabrication process while increasing the complexity of the devices," Busbee said.

Built by a fully automated, digital manufacturing procedure, the 3D-printed heart-on-a-chip can be quickly fabricated in customised form factors allowing researchers to easily collect reliable data for short-term and long-term studies.

The researchers believe that the new approach to manufacturing, described in the journal in Nature Materials, may one day allow researchers to rapidly design organs-on-chips, also known as microphysiological systems, that match the properties of a specific disease or even an individual patient's cells.

"This new programmable approach to building organs-on-chips not only allows us to easily change and customise the design of the system by integrating sensing but also drastically simplifies data acquisition," study first author Johan Ulrik Lind said.

​Toronto, Oct 25 (IANS) Dismissing a common perception that dinosaurs were solitary, vicious monsters, researchers have found evidence that just like most modern animals, these gigantic creatures too loved company and they lived and died together in groups.

"The common mythology of dinosaurs depicts solitary, vicious monsters running around eating everything," said one of the researchers Gregory Funston from University of Alberta in Canada. 

"Our discovery demonstrates that dinosaurs are more similar to modern animals than people appreciate," Funston noted.

"This evidence shows that dinosaurs were social beings with gregarious behaviour who lived and died together in groups," he added.

The discovery comes from a site in Mongolia, first encountered by paleontologists a decade ago. The site contained thousands of shards of destroyed bone, belying the telltale evidence of a previous discovery by fossil poachers. 

After conducting additional field work, scientists discovered a bonebed with an assemblage of bird-like Avimimus dinosaurs, who were extremely rare prior to this discovery.

Though it is common knowledge that modern birds form flocks, this is the first evidence of flocking behavior in bird-like dinosaurs, Funston explained.

"With an assemblage like this, you can't really understand why the dinosaurs died together unless you see the field site," Funston said. 

"We can tell that they were living together around the time of death, but the mystery still remains as to why," he added.

The findings on the bird-like dinosaur Avimimus from the late-Cretaceous period were published in the journal Scientific Reports.

​New York, Oct 23 (IANS) Social media giant Facebook has rolled out a new update to its Messenger app that now lets Windows 10 -- just like for Android and iOS -- users to make voice and video calls, a media report said.

​London, Oct 23 (IANS) There is no link between how hungry we feel and the amount of calories we consume, reveals a study.

It suggests that food marketed as having appetite-modifying properties does not alter our calorie intake. 

The findings, published in the journal Food and Science Nutrition, highlighted the health claims made by the food industry and the way in which many products are advertised -- especially those aimed at people trying to lose weight.

"The food industry is littered with products which are marketed on the basis of their appetite-modifying properties. Whilst these claims may be true, they shouldn't be extended to imply that energy intake will be reduced as a result," said Bernard Corfe, Researcher at the University of Sheffield. 

Researchers analysed 462 scientific studies and arrived at the conclusion that appetite ratings failed to correspond with energy intake -- the number of calories consumed -- in the majority of studies.

Corfe said, "For example, you could eat a meal which claims to satisfy your appetite and keep you feeling full-up for a long period of time but nonetheless go on to consume a large amount of calories later on." 

The research team suggested that more research is needed to examine other factors governing actual food intake, including sensorial environment, social factors, entrained behaviour relating to food timing, along with our innate physical regulation of intake.